The Art Of Being Human 10th Edition Pdf Download

Swartz at a meetup in August 2009
Born
November 8, 1986
Highland Park, Illinois,[2] U.S.
DiedJanuary 11, 2013 (aged 26)
Cause of deathSuicide by hanging
Alma materStanford University
OccupationSoftware developer, writer, internet activist
OrganizationCreative Commons (development), Reddit (co-founder), Watchdog.net, Open Library, DeadDrop, Progressive Change Campaign Committee, Demand Progress (co-founder), ThoughtWorks, Tor2web
TitleFellow, Harvard UniversityEdmond J. Safra Center for Ethics
AwardsArsDigita Prize (2000)
American Library Association's James Madison Award(posthumously)
EFF Pioneer Award 2013 (posthumously)
Internet Hall of Fame 2013 (posthumously)
Websiteaaronsw.com

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Aaron Hillel Swartz (November 8, 1986 – January 11, 2013) was an American computer programmer, entrepreneur, writer, political organizer, and Internet hacktivist. He was involved in the development of the web feed format RSS[3] and the Markdown publishing format,[4] the organization Creative Commons,[5] and the website framework web.py,[6] and was a co-founder of the social news site Reddit. He was given the title of co-founder by Y Combinator owner Paul Graham after the formation of Not a Bug, Inc. (a merger of Swartz's project Infogami and a company run by Alexis Ohanian and Steve Huffman).

Swartz's work also focused on civic awareness and activism.[7][8] He helped launch the Progressive Change Campaign Committee in 2009 to learn more about effective online activism. In 2010, he became a research fellow at Harvard University's Safra Research Lab on Institutional Corruption, directed by Lawrence Lessig.[9][10] He founded the online group Demand Progress, known for its campaign against the Stop Online Piracy Act.

In 2011, Swartz was arrested by Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) police on state breaking-and-entering charges, after connecting a computer to the MIT network in an unmarked and unlocked closet, and setting it to download academic journal articles systematically from JSTOR using a guest user account issued to him by MIT.[11][12] Federal prosecutors later charged him with two counts of wire fraud and eleven violations of the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act,[13] carrying a cumulative maximum penalty of $1 million in fines, 35 years in prison, asset forfeiture, restitution, and supervised release.[14]

Swartz declined a plea bargain under which he would have served six months in federal prison. Two days after the prosecution rejected a counter-offer by Swartz, he was found dead in his Brooklyn apartment, where he had hanged himself.[15][16]

In 2013, Swartz was inducted posthumously into the Internet Hall of Fame.[17]

  • 1Early life
  • 2Activism
  • 3United States v. Aaron Swartz case
  • 4Death, funeral, and memorial gatherings
  • 5Response
    • 5.4Internet
  • 6Legacy
    • 6.2Congress
  • 7Media
  • 8Works
  • 12External links

Early life[edit]

Swartz in 2002 with Lawrence Lessig at the launch party for Creative Commons
Swartz describes the nature of the shift from centralized one-to-many systems to the decentralized many-to-many topology of network communication. San Francisco, April 2007 (9:29)

Swartz was born in Highland Park, Illinois[2][18] (a suburb of Chicago), the eldest son of Jewish parents Susan and Robert Swartz and brother of Noah and Benjamin.[1][19] His father had founded the software firm Mark Williams Company. Swartz immersed himself in the study of computers, programming, the Internet, and Internet culture.[20] He attended North Shore Country Day School, a small private school near Chicago, until 9th grade.[21] Swartz left high school in the 10th grade, and enrolled in courses at a Chicago area college.[22][23]

In 1999, when he was 13 years old he created the website Theinfo.org, a collaborative online library.[24] Theinfo.org made Swartz the winner of the ArsDigita Prize, given to young people who create 'useful, educational, and collaborative' noncommercial websites.[1][25][26] At age 14, he became a member of the working group that authored the RSS 1.0web syndicationspecification.

Swartz attended Stanford University, but dropped out after his first year.[27]

Entrepreneurship[edit]

During Swartz's first year at Stanford, he applied to Y Combinator's very first Summer Founders Program, proposing to work on a startup called Infogami, designed as a flexible content management system to allow the creation of rich and visually interesting websites[28] or a form of wiki for structured data. After working on Infogami with co-founder Simon Carstensen over the summer of 2005, Aaron opted not to return to Stanford, choosing instead to continue to develop and seek funding for Infogami.[28]

As part of his work on Infogami, Swartz created the web.py web application framework because he was unhappy with other available systems in the Python programming language. In early fall of 2005, Swartz worked with his fellow co-founders of another nascent Y-Combinator firm Reddit, to rewrite Reddit's Lisp codebase using Python and web.py. Although Infogami's platform was abandoned after Not a Bug was acquired, Infogami's software was used to support the Internet Archive's Open Library project and the web.py web framework was used as basis for many other projects by Swartz and many others.[6]

When Infogami failed to find further funding, Y-Combinator organizers suggested that Infogami merge with Reddit,[29][30] which it did in November 2005, resulting in the formation of a new firm, Not a Bug, devoted to promoting both products.[29][31] As a result of this merger, Swartz was given the title of co-founder of Reddit. Although both projects initially struggled to gain traction, Reddit began to make large gains in popularity in 2005 and 2006.

In October 2006, based largely on the success of Reddit, Not a Bug was acquired by Condé Nast Publications, the owner of Wired magazine.[20][32] Swartz moved with his company to San Francisco to work on Wired.[20] Swartz found office life uncongenial, and he ultimately left the company.[33] In September 2007, Swartz joined with Infogami co-founder Simon Carstensen to launch a new firm, Jottit, in another attempt to create another markdown driven content management system in Python.[34]

Activism[edit]

In 2008, Swartz founded Watchdog.net, 'the good government site with teeth,' to aggregate and visualize data about politicians.[35][36] In the same year, he wrote a widely circulated Guerilla Open Access Manifesto.[37][38][39][40] On December 27, 2010, Swartz filed a Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) request to learn about the treatment of Chelsea Manning, alleged source for WikiLeaks.[41][42]

PACER[edit]

In 2008, Swartz downloaded about 2.7 million federal court documents stored in the PACER (Public Access to Court Electronic Records) database managed by the Administrative Office of the United States Courts.[43]

The Huffington Post characterized his actions this way: 'Swartz downloaded public court documents from the PACER system in an effort to make them available outside of the expensive service. The move drew the attention of the FBI, which ultimately decided not to press charges as the documents were, in fact, public.'[44]

PACER was charging 8 cents per page for information that Carl Malamud, who founded the nonprofit group Public.Resource.Org, contended should be free, because federal documents are not covered by copyright.[45][46] The fees were 'plowed back to the courts to finance technology, but the system [ran] a budget surplus of some $150 million, according to court reports,' reported The New York Times.[45] PACER used technology that was 'designed in the bygone days of screechy telephone modems ... putting the nation's legal system behind a wall of cash and kludge.'[45] Malamud appealed to fellow activists, urging them to visit one of 17 libraries conducting a free trial of the PACER system, download court documents, and send them to him for public distribution.[45]

After reading Malamud's call for action,[45] Swartz used a Perl computer script running on Amazon cloud servers to download the documents, using credentials belonging to a Sacramento library.[43] From September 4 to 20, 2008, it accessed documents and uploaded them to a cloud computing service.[46] He released the documents to Malamud's organization.[46]

On September 29, 2008,[45] the GPO suspended the free trial, 'pending an evaluation' of the program.[45][46] Swartz's actions were subsequently investigated by the FBI.[45][46] The case was closed after two months with no charges filed.[46] Swartz learned the details of the investigation as a result of filing a FOIA request with the FBI and described their response as the 'usual mess of confusions that shows the FBI's lack of sense of humor.'[46] PACER still charges per page, but customers using Firefox have the option of saving the documents for free public access with a plug-in called RECAP.[47]

At a 2013 memorial for Swartz, Malamud recalled their work with PACER. They brought millions of U.S. District Court records out from behind PACER's 'pay wall', he said, and found them full of privacy violations, including medical records and the names of minor children and confidential informants.

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We sent our results to the Chief Judges of 31 District Courts ... They redacted those documents and they yelled at the lawyers that filed them ... The Judicial Conference changed their privacy rules. ... [To] the bureaucrats who ran the Administrative Office of the United States Courts ... we were thieves that took $1.6 million of their property.

So they called the FBI ... [The FBI] found nothing wrong ...[48]

Malamud penned a more detailed account of his collaboration with Swartz on the Pacer project in an essay that appears on his website.[49]

Writing in Ars Technica, Timothy Lee,[50] who later made use of the documents obtained by Swartz as a co-creator of RECAP, offered some insight into discrepancies in reporting on just how much data Swartz had downloaded: 'In a back-of-the-envelope calculation a few days before the offsite crawl was shut down, Swartz guessed he got around 25 percent of the documents in PACER. The New York Times similarly reported Swartz had downloaded 'an estimated 20 percent of the entire database'. Based on the facts that Swartz downloaded 2.7 million documents while PACER, at the time, contained 500 million, Lee concluded that Swartz downloaded less than one percent of the database.[43]

Progressive Change Campaign Committee[edit]

In 2009, wanting to learn about effective activism, Swartz helped launch the Progressive Change Campaign Committee.[51] He wrote on his blog, 'I spend my days experimenting with new ways to get progressive policies enacted and progressive politicians elected.'[52] Swartz led the first activism event of his career with the Progressive Change Campaign Committee, delivering thousands of 'Honor Kennedy' petition signatures to Massachusetts legislators asking them to fulfill former Senator Ted Kennedy's last wish by appointing a senator to vote for health care reform.[53]

Demand Progress[edit]

In 2010,[54] Swartz co-founded Demand Progress,[55] a political advocacy group that organizes people online to 'take action by contacting Congress and other leaders, funding pressure tactics, and spreading the word' about civil liberties, government reform, and other issues.[56]

During academic year 2010–11, Swartz conducted research studies on political corruption as a Lab Fellow in Harvard University's Edmond J. Safra Research Lab on Institutional Corruption.[9][10]

Author Cory Doctorow, in his novel Homeland, 'drew on advice from Swartz in setting out how his protagonist could use the information now available about voters to create a grass-roots anti-establishment political campaign.'[57] In an afterword to the novel, Swartz wrote, 'these political hacktivist tools can be used by anyone motivated and talented enough.... Now it's up to you to change the system. ... Let me know if I can help.'[57]

Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA)[edit]

Swartz in 2012 protesting against the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA)

Swartz was involved in the campaign to prevent passage of the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA), which sought to combat Internet copyright violations but was criticized on the basis that it would have made it easier for the U.S. government to shut down web sites accused of violating copyright and would have placed intolerable burdens on Internet providers.[58] Following the defeat of the bill, Swartz was the keynote speaker at the F2C:Freedom to Connect 2012 event in Washington, D.C., on May 21, 2012. His speech was titled 'How We Stopped SOPA' and he informed the audience:

This bill ... shut down whole websites. Essentially, it stopped Americans from communicating entirely with certain groups....
I called all my friends, and we stayed up all night setting up a website for this new group, Demand Progress, with an online petition opposing this noxious bill.... We [got] ... 300,000 signers.... We met with the staff of members of Congress and pleaded with them.... And then it passed unanimously....
And then, suddenly, the process stopped. Senator Ron Wyden ... put a hold on the bill.[59][60]

He added, 'We won this fight because everyone made themselves the hero of their own story. Everyone took it as their job to save this crucial freedom.'[59][60] He was referring to a series of protests against the bill by numerous websites that was described by the Electronic Frontier Foundation as the biggest in Internet history, with over 115,000 sites altering their webpages.[61] Swartz also presented on this topic at an event organized by ThoughtWorks.[62]

Wikipedia[edit]

Swartz at 2009 Boston Wikipedia Meetup

Swartz participated in Wikipedia from August 2003.[63] In 2006, he ran unsuccessfully for the Wikimedia Foundation's Board of Trustees.[64]

In 2006, Swartz wrote an analysis of how Wikipedia articles are written, and concluded that the bulk of the actual content comes from tens of thousands of occasional contributors, or 'outsiders', each of whom may not make many other contributions to the site, while a core group of 500 to 1,000 regular editors tend to correct spelling and other formatting errors.[65] According to Swartz: 'the formatters aid the contributors, not the other way around.'[65][66] His conclusions, based on the analysis of edit histories of several randomly selected articles, contradicted the opinion of Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales, who believed the core group of regular editors were providing most of the content while thousands of others contributed to formatting issues. Swartz came to his conclusions by counting the total number of characters added by an editor to a particular article, while Wales counted the total number of edits.[65]

United States v. Aaron Swartz case[edit]

Aaron Swartz noted that the knowledge produced at public universities and financed by US government and graduate students was not released free to the public. Instead, it was being copyrighted and benefits were not given to the authors but was being privatized and locked by for-profit corporations that did not invest in these public works. They instead earned billions of US Dollars each year for private publishers, since these publications were repackaged in academic databases that university libraries pay thousands of dollars to subscribe to so that their students can access the content. Swartz used a full text scholarly online databases, JSTOR, which he accessed through the MIT network in order to download books, journals, etc produced thanks to public funds and paid by money collected by taxpayers.

According to state and federal authorities, Swartz used JSTOR, a digital repository,[67] to download a large number[ii] of academic journal articles through MIT's computer network over the course of a few weeks in late 2010 and early 2011. At the time, Swartz was a research fellow at Harvard University, which provided him with a JSTOR account.[13] Visitors to MIT's 'open campus' were authorized to access JSTOR through its network.[68]

The authorities said Swartz downloaded the documents through a laptop connected to a networking switch in a controlled-access wiring closet at MIT.[12][13][69][70][71] The door to the closet was kept unlocked, according to press reports.[68][72][73]When discovered, a video camera was placed in the room to film Swartz and Swartz's computer was left untouched. Once video was captured of Swartz, the download was stopped and Swartz was identified. Rather than pursue a civil lawsuit against him, in June 2011 they reached a settlement wherein he surrendered the downloaded data.[74][75]

Response from JSTOR[edit]

On September 25, 2010, the IP address 18.55.6.215, part of the MIT network, began sending hundreds of PDF download requests per minute, and was affecting the performance of the entire JSTOR site.[76] This prompted a block of the IP address. In the morning, another IP address, also from within the MIT network, began sending JSTOR more PDF download requests, resulting in a temporary full block on the firewall level of all MIT servers in the entire 18.0.0.0/8 range. An email was then sent to MIT, describing the situation:

From an email sent on September 29, 2010, one JSTOR employee wrote to MIT:

note that this was an extreme case. We typically suspend just one individual IP at a time and do that relatively infrequently (perhaps 6 on a busy day, from 7000+ institutional subscribers). In this case, we saw a performance hit on the live site, which I have only seen about 3 or 4 times in my 5 years here.The pattern used was to create a new session for each PDF download or every few, which was terribly efficient, but not terribly subtle. In the end, we saw over 200K sessions in one hour's time during the peak.

— NAME REDACTED, JSTOR[77]

On July 30, 2013, JSTOR released 300 partially redacted documents, which had been provided as incriminating evidence against Aaron Swartz. These documents were originally sent to the United States Attorney's Office in response to subpoenas in the case United States v. Aaron Swartz.[78]

(The following images are all excerpts from the 3,461-page PDF document.)

  • 'Root Cause Analysis' Report (side 1), showing a descriptive timeline of events from September 25, 2010, until December 26, 2010.[79]

  • 'Root Cause Analysis' Report (side 2), showing JSTOR response and incident resolution procedures.[80]

  • Email sent from JSTOR to Stephan, Heymann (USAMA), estimating 3.5 million PDF files had been downloaded.[81]

  • Email describing PDF download activity snapshots (see next images in gallery)[82]

  • Describes PDF download activity, from JSTOR's databases to MIT servers, between November 1 and December 27.[83]

  • PDF activity, from JSTOR to MIT, between January 1 to 15.[84]

Arrest and prosecution[edit]

On the night of January 6, 2011, Swartz was arrested near the Harvard campus by MIT police and a United States Secret Service agent. He was arraigned in Cambridge District Court on two state charges of breaking and entering with intent to commit a felony.[11][12][71][85][86]

On July 11, 2011, Swartz was indicted by a federal grand jury on charges of wire fraud, computer fraud, unlawfully obtaining information from a protected computer, and recklessly damaging a protected computer.[13][87]

On November 17, 2011, Swartz was indicted by a Middlesex County Superior Court grand jury on state charges of breaking and entering with intent, grand larceny, and unauthorized access to a computer network.[88][89] On December 16, 2011, state prosecutors filed a notice that they were dropping the two original charges;[12] the charges listed in the November 17, 2011, indictment were dropped on March 8, 2012.[90] According to a spokesperson for the Middlesex County prosecutor, the state charges were dropped to permit a federal prosecution headed by Stephen P. Heymann and supported by evidence provided by Secret Service agent Michael S. Pickett[91] to proceed unimpeded.[90]

On September 12, 2012, federal prosecutors filed a superseding indictment adding nine more felony counts, which increased Swartz's maximum criminal exposure to 50 years of imprisonment and $1 million in fines.[13][92][93] During plea negotiations with Swartz's attorneys, the prosecutors offered to recommend a sentence of six months in a low-security prison, if Swartz would plead guilty to 13 federal crimes. Swartz and his lead attorney rejected that deal, opting instead for a trial in which prosecutors would have been forced to justify their pursuit of Swartz.[94][95]

The federal prosecution involved what was characterized by numerous critics (such as former Nixon White House counsel John Dean) as an 'overcharging' 13-count indictment and 'overzealous' prosecution for alleged computer crimes, brought by former U.S. Attorney for Massachusetts Carmen Ortiz.[96]

Swartz died of suicide on January 11, 2013.[97] After his death, federal prosecutors dropped the charges.[98][99] On December 4, 2013, due to a Freedom of Information Act suit by the investigations editor of Wired magazine, several documents related to the case were released by the Secret Service, including a video of Swartz entering the MIT network closet.[100]

Death, funeral, and memorial gatherings[edit]

External video
Aaron Swartz Memorial at The Great Hall of Cooper Union, (transcript)
Aaron Swartz Memorial at the Internet Archive, (partial transcript)
DC Memorial: Darrel Issa, Taren Stinebrickner-Kauffman, Alan Grayson

Death[edit]

On the evening of January 11, 2013, Swartz was found dead in his Brooklyn apartment by his partner,[101]Taren Stinebrickner-Kauffman.[68][102][103] A spokeswoman for New York's Medical Examiner reported that he had hanged himself.[102][103][104][105] No suicide note was found.[106] Swartz's family and his partner created a memorial website on which they issued a statement, saying: 'He used his prodigious skills as a programmer and technologist not to enrich himself but to make the Internet and the world a fairer, better place.'[19]

Days before Swartz's funeral, Lawrence Lessig eulogized his friend and sometime-client in an essay, Prosecutor as Bully. He decried the disproportionality of Swartz's prosecution and said, 'The question this government needs to answer is why it was so necessary that Aaron Swartz be labeled a 'felon'. For in the 18 months of negotiations, that was what he was not willing to accept.'[107] Cory Doctorow wrote, 'Aaron had an unbeatable combination of political insight, technical skill, and intelligence about people and issues. I think he could have revolutionized American (and worldwide) politics. His legacy may still yet do so.'[108]

Funeral and memorial gatherings[edit]

Swartz's funeral services were held on January 15, 2013, at Central Avenue Synagogue in Highland Park, Illinois. Tim Berners-Lee, creator of the World Wide Web, delivered a eulogy.[109][110][111][112] The same day, The Wall Street Journal published a story based in part on an interview with Stinebrickner-Kauffman.[113] She told the Journal that Swartz lacked the money to pay for a trial and 'it was too hard for him to ... make that part of his life go public' by asking for help. He was also distressed, she said, because two of his friends had just been subpoenaed and because he no longer believed that MIT would try to stop the prosecution.[113]

Several memorials followed soon afterward. On January 19, hundreds attended a memorial at the Cooper Union, speakers at which included Stinebrickner-Kauffman, open source advocate Doc Searls, Creative Commons' Glenn Otis Brown, journalist Quinn Norton, Roy Singham of ThoughtWorks, and David Segal of Demand Progress.[114][115][116] On January 24, there was a memorial at the Internet Archive with speakers including Stinebrickner-Kauffman, Alex Stamos, Brewster Kahle, and Carl Malamud.[117] On February 4, a memorial was held in the Cannon House Office Building on Capitol Hill;[118][119][120][121] speakers at this memorial included Senator Ron Wyden and Representatives Darrell Issa, Alan Grayson, and Jared Polis,[120][121] and other lawmakers in attendance included Senator Elizabeth Warren and Representatives Zoe Lofgren and Jan Schakowsky.[120][121] A memorial also took place on March 12 at the MIT Media Lab.[122]

Swartz's family recommended GiveWell for donations in his memory, an organization that Swartz admired, had collaborated with and was the sole beneficiary of his will.[123][124]

Response[edit]

Family response[edit]

Aaron's death is not simply a personal tragedy. It is the product of a criminal justice system rife with intimidation and prosecutorial overreach. Decisions made by officials in the Massachusetts U.S. Attorney's office and at MIT contributed to his death.

—Statement by family and partner of Aaron Swartz[125]

On January 12, 2013, Swartz's family and partner issued a statement criticizing the prosecutors and MIT.[125] Speaking at his son's funeral on January 15, Robert Swartz said, 'Aaron was killed by the government, and MIT betrayed all of its basic principles.'[126]

Tom Dolan, husband of U.S. Attorney for Massachusetts Carmen Ortiz, whose office prosecuted Swartz's case, replied with criticism of the Swartz family: 'Truly incredible that in their own son's obit they blame others for his death and make no mention of the 6-month offer.'[127] This comment triggered some criticism; Esquire writer Charlie Pierce replied, 'the glibness with which her husband and her defenders toss off a 'mere' six months in federal prison, low-security or not, is a further indication that something is seriously out of whack with the way our prosecutors think these days.'[128]

MIT[edit]

MIT maintains an open-campus policy along with an 'open network.'[73][129] Two days after Swartz's death, MIT President L. Rafael Reif commissioned professor Hal Abelson to lead an analysis of MIT's options and decisions relating to Swartz's 'legal struggles.'[130][131] To help guide the fact-finding stage of the review, MIT created a website where community members could suggest questions and issues for the review to address.[132][133]

Swartz's attorneys requested that all pretrial discovery documents be made public, a move which MIT opposed.[134] Swartz allies have criticized MIT for its opposition to releasing the evidence without redactions.[135] On July 26, 2013, the Abelson panel submitted a 182-page report to MIT president, L. Rafael Reif, who authorized its public release on July 30.[136][137][138] The panel reported that MIT had not supported charges against Swartz and cleared the institution of wrongdoing. However, its report also noted that despite MIT's advocacy for open access culture at the institutional level and beyond, the university never extended that support to Swartz. The report revealed, for example, that while MIT considered the possibility of issuing a public statement about its position on the case, such a statement never materialized.[139]

Press[edit]

Aaron Swartz mural by Brooklyngraffiti artist BAMN

The Huffington Post reported that 'Ortiz has faced significant backlash for pursuing the case against Swartz, including a petition to the White House to have her fired.'[140] Other news outlets reported similarly.[141][142][143]

Reuters news agency called Swartz 'an online icon' who 'help[ed] to make a virtual mountain of information freely available to the public, including an estimated 19 million pages of federal court documents.'[144] The Associated Press (AP) reported that Swartz's case 'highlights society's uncertain, evolving view of how to treat people who break into computer systems and share data not to enrich themselves, but to make it available to others,'[58] and that JSTOR's lawyer, former U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of New York Mary Jo White, had asked the lead prosecutor to drop the charges.[58]

As discussed by editor Hrag Vartanian in Hyperallergic, Brooklyn, New York, muralist BAMN ('By Any Means Necessary') created a mural of Swartz.[145] 'Swartz was an amazing human being who fought tirelessly for our right to a free and open Internet,' the artist explained. 'He was much more than just the 'Reddit guy'.'

Speaking on April 17, 2013, Yuval Noah Harari described Swartz as 'the first martyr of the Freedom of Information movement.'[146]

Aaron Swartz's legacy has been reported as strengthening the open access to scholarship movement. In Illinois, his home state, Swartz's influence led state university faculties to adopt policies in favor of open access.[147]

Internet[edit]

Hacks[edit]

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On January 13, 2013, members of Anonymous hacked two websites on the MIT domain, replacing them with tributes to Swartz that called on members of the Internet community to use his death as a rallying point for the open access movement. The banner included a list of demands for improvements in the U.S. copyright system, along with Swartz's Guerilla Open Access Manifesto.[148] On the night of January 18, 2013, MIT's e-mail system was taken offline for ten hours.[149] On January 22, e-mail sent to MIT was redirected by hackers Aush0k and TibitXimer to the Korea Advanced Institute of Science & Technology. All other traffic to MIT was redirected to a computer at Harvard University that was publishing a statement headed 'R.I.P Aaron Swartz,'[150] with text from a 2009 posting by Swartz,[151] accompanied by a chiptunes version of 'The Star-Spangled Banner'. MIT regained full control after about seven hours.[152] In the early hours of January 26, 2013, the U.S. Sentencing Commission website, USSC.gov, was hacked by Anonymous.[153][154] The home page was replaced with an embedded YouTube video, Anonymous Operation Last Resort. The video statement said Swartz 'faced an impossible choice'.[155][156] A hacker downloaded 'hundreds of thousands' of scientific-journal articles from a Swiss publisher's website and republished them on the open Web in Swartz's honor a week before the first anniversary of his death.[157]

Petition to the White House[edit]

After Swartz's death, more than 50,000 people signed an online petition[158] to the White House calling for the removal of Ortiz, 'for overreach in the case of Aaron Swartz.'[159] A similar petition[160] was submitted calling for prosecutor Stephen Heymann's firing.[161][162] In January 2015, two years after Swartz's death, the White House declined both petitions.[163]

Commemorations[edit]

External video
IHoF Induction Ceremony – Aaron Swartz on YouTube

On August 3, 2013, Swartz was posthumously inducted into the Internet Hall of Fame.[17] There was a hackathon held in Swartz' memory around the date of his birthday in 2013.[164][165] Over the weekend of November 8–10, 2013, inspired by Swartz's work and life, a second annual hackathon was held in at least 16 cities around the world.[166][167][168] Preliminary topics worked on at the 2013 Aaron Swartz Hackathon[169] were privacy and software tools, transparency, activism, access, legal fixes, and a low-cost book scanner.[170] In January 2014, Lawrence Lessig led a walk across New Hampshire in honor of Swartz, rallying for campaign finance reform.[171][172]

In 2017 the Turkish-Dutch artist Ahmet Öğüt commemorated Swartz through a work entitled 'Information Power to The People' and depicting his bust.[173]

A sculpture of Aaron Swartz entitled 'Information Power to The People' created by Ahmet Öğüt

Legacy[edit]

Open Access[edit]

A long-time supporter of open access, Swartz wrote in his Guerilla Open Access Manifesto:[39]

The world's entire scientific ... heritage ... is increasingly being digitized and locked up by a handful of private corporations....

The Open Access Movement has fought valiantly to ensure that scientists do not sign their copyrights away but instead ensure their work is published on the Internet, under terms that allow anyone to access it.

Supporters of Swartz responded to news of his death with an effort called #PDFTribute[174] to promote Open Access.[175][176] On January 12, Eva Vivalt, a development economist at the World Bank, began posting her academic articles online using the hashtag#pdftribute as a tribute to Swartz.[176][177][178] Scholars posted links to their works.[179] The story of Aaron Swartz has exposed the topic of open access to scientific publications to wider audiences.[180][181] In the wake of Aaron Swartz, many institutions and personalities have campaigned for open access to scientific knowledge.[182] Swartz's death prompted calls for more open access to scholarly data (e.g., open science data).[183][184] The Think Computer Foundation and the Center for Information Technology Policy (CITP) at Princeton University announced scholarships awarded in memory of Aaron Swartz.[185] In 2013, Swartz was posthumously awarded the American Library Association's James Madison Award for being an 'outspoken advocate for public participation in government and unrestricted access to peer-reviewed scholarly articles.'[186][187] In March, the editor and editorial board of the Journal of Library Administration resigned en masse, citing a dispute with the journal's publisher, Routledge.[188] One board member wrote of a 'crisis of conscience about publishing in a journal that was not open access' after the death of Aaron Swartz.[189][190] In 2002, Swartz had stated that when he died, he wanted all the contents of his hard drives made publicly available.[191][192] The 'cOAlition S', a consortium launched by the European Research Council continues the fight of Aaron Swartz with the will to make available to all by 2020 all the scientific publications financed by the member states of this coalition.[193]

Congress[edit]

Several members of the U.S. House of Representatives – Republican Darrell Issa and Democrats Jared Polis and Zoe Lofgren – all on the House Judiciary Committee, have raised questions regarding the government's handling of the case. Calling the charges against him 'ridiculous and trumped up,' Polis said Swartz was a 'martyr,' whose death illustrated the need for Congress to limit the discretion of federal prosecutors.[194] Speaking at a memorial for Swartz on Capitol Hill, Issa said

Ultimately, knowledge belongs to all the people of the world.... Aaron understood that.... Our copyright laws were created for the purpose of promoting useful works, not hiding them.

Massachusetts Democratic Senator Elizabeth Warren issued a statement saying '[Aaron's] advocacy for Internet freedom, social justice, and Wall Street reform demonstrated ... the power of his ideas....'[195] In a letter to Attorney General Eric Holder,[196] Texas Republican Senator John Cornyn asked, 'On what basis did the U.S. Attorney for the District of Massachusetts conclude that her office's conduct was 'appropriate'?' and 'Was the prosecution of Mr. Swartz in any way retaliation for his exercise of his rights as a citizen under the Freedom of Information Act?'[197][198][199]

Congressional investigations[edit]

Issa, who chairs the House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, announced that he would investigate the Justice Department's actions in prosecuting Swartz.[194] In a statement to The Huffington Post, he praised Swartz's work toward 'open government and free access to the people.' Issa's investigation has garnered some bipartisan support.[195]

On January 28, 2013, Issa and ranking committee member Elijah Cummings published a letter to U.S. Attorney General Holder, questioning why federal prosecutors had filed the superseding indictment.[93][200] On February 20, WBUR reported that Ortiz was expected to testify at an upcoming Oversight Committee hearing about her office's handling of the Swartz case.[201] On February 22, Associate Deputy Attorney General Steven Reich conducted a briefing for congressional staffers involved in the investigation.[202][203] They were told that Swartz's Guerilla Open Access Manifesto played a role in prosecutorial decision-making.[38][202][203] Congressional staffers left this briefing believing that prosecutors thought Swartz had to be convicted of a felony carrying at least a short prison sentence in order to justify having filed the case against him in the first place.[202][203]

Excoriating the Department of Justice as the 'Department of Vengeance', Stinebrickner-Kauffman told the Guardian that the DOJ had erred in relying on Swartz's Guerilla Open Access Manifesto as an accurate indication of his beliefs by 2010. 'He was no longer a single issue activist,' she said. 'He was into lots of things, from healthcare, to climate change to money in politics.'[38]

On March 6, Holder testified before the Senate Judiciary Committee that the case was 'a good use of prosecutorial discretion.'[204] Stinebrickner-Kauffman issued a statement in reply, repeating and amplifying her claims of prosecutorial misconduct. Public documents, she wrote, reveal that prosecutor Stephen Heymann 'instructed the Secret Service to seize and hold evidence without a warrant... lied to the judge about that fact in written briefs... [and] withheld exculpatory evidence... for over a year,' violating his legal and ethical obligations to turn such evidence over to the defense.[205] On March 22, Senator Al Franken wrote Holder a letter expressing concerns, writing that 'charging a young man like Mr. Swartz with federal offenses punishable by over 35 years of federal imprisonment seems remarkably aggressive – particularly when it appears that one of the principal aggrieved parties ... did not support a criminal prosecution.'[206]

Amendment to Computer Fraud and Abuse Act[edit]

Wikisource has original text related to this article:

In 2013, Rep. Zoe Lofgren (D-Calif.) introduced a bill, Aaron's Law (H.R. 2454, S. 1196[207]) to exclude terms of service violations from the 1986 Computer Fraud and Abuse Act and from the wire fraud statute.[208]

Lawrence Lessig wrote of the bill, 'this is a critically important change.... The CFAA was the hook for the government's bullying.... This law would remove that hook. In a single line: no longer would it be a felony to breach a contract.'[209] Professor Orin Kerr, a specialist in the nexus between computer law and criminal law, wrote that he had been arguing for precisely this sort of reform of the Act for years.[210] The ACLU, too, has called for reform of the CFAA to 'remove the dangerously broad criminalization of online activity.'[211] The EFF has mounted a campaign for these reforms.[212]Lessig's inaugural Chair lecture as Furman Professor of Law and Leadership was entitled Aaron's Laws: Law and Justice in a Digital Age; he dedicated the lecture to Swartz.[213][214][215][216]

The Aaron's Law bill stalled in committee since May 2014, reportedly due to Oracle Corporation's financial interests.[217]

Fair Access to Science and Technology Research Act[edit]

The Fair Access to Science and Technology Research Act (FASTR) is a bill that would mandate earlier public release of taxpayer-funded research. FASTR has been described as 'The Other Aaron's Law.'[218]

Senator Ron Wyden (D-Ore.) and Senator John Cornyn (R-Tex.) introduced the Senate version, in 2013 and again in 2015, while the bill was introduced to the House by Reps. Zoe Lofgren (D-Calif.), Mike Doyle (D-Pa.) and Kevin Yoder (R-Kans.). Senator Wyden wrote of the bill, 'the FASTR act provides that access to taxpayer funded research should never be hidden behind a paywall.'[219]

While the legislation has not passed as of October 2015, it has helped to prompt some motion toward more open access on the part of the US administration. Shortly after the bill's original introduction, the Office of Science and Technology Policy directed 'each Federal agency with over $100 million in annual conduct of research and development expenditures to develop a plan to support increased public access to the results of research funded by the Federal Government.'[220]

Media[edit]

Aaron has been featured in and received dedications from numerous art work. In 2013, Kenneth Goldsmith dedicated his 'Printing Out the Internet' exhibition to Swartz.[221][222] The fate of Aaron Swartz was also featured in conservative filmmaker Dinesh D'Souza's 2014 documentary America: Imagine the World Without Her, wherein D'Souza compares Swartz's prosecution to his own conviction for violating campaign finance laws, and alleges that both cases exemplify selective, overzealous prosecution.[223][224] There are also dedicated biographical films for Aaron:

The Internet's Own Boy: The Story of Aaron Swartz[edit]

On January 11, 2014, marking the first anniversary of his death, a preview was released of The Internet's Own Boy: The Story of Aaron Swartz,[225] a documentary about Swartz, the NSA and SOPA.[226][227] The film was officially released at the January 2014 Sundance Film Festival.[228]Democracy Now! covered the release of the documentary, as well as Swartz's life and legal case, in a sprawling interview with director Brian Knappenberger, Swartz's father, brother, and his attorney.[229] The documentary is released under a Creative Commons License;[230][231] it debuted in theaters and on-demand in June 2014.[232]

Mashable called the documentary 'a powerful homage to Aaron Swartz'. Its debut at Sundance received a standing ovation. Mashable printed, 'With the help of experts, The Internet's Own Boy makes a clear argument: Swartz unjustly became a victim of the rights and freedoms for which he stood.'[233]The Hollywood Reporter described it as a 'heartbreaking' story of a 'tech wunderkind persecuted by the US government', and a must-see 'for anyone who knows enough to care about the way laws govern information transfer in the digital age'.[234]

Killswitch[edit]

In October 2014, Killswitch, a film featuring Aaron Swartz, as well as Lawrence Lessig, Tim Wu, and Edward Snowden, received its world premiere at the Woodstock Film Festival, where it won the award for Best Editing. The film focuses on Swartz's role in advocating for internet freedoms.[235][236]

In February 2015, Killswitch was invited to screen at the Capitol Visitor's Center in Washington, D.C. by Congressman Alan Grayson. The event was held on the eve of the Federal Communications Commission's historic decision on Net Neutrality. Congressman Grayson, Lawrence Lessig, and Free Press CEO Craig Aaron spoke about Swartz and his fight on behalf of a free and open Internet at the event.[237][238]

Congressman Grayson states that Killswitch is 'one of the most honest accounts of the battle to control the Internet – and access to information itself.'[237]Richard von Busack of the Metro Silicon Valley writes of Killswitch, 'Some of the most lapidary use of found footage this side of The Atomic Café'.[235] Fred Swegles of the Orange County Register remarks, 'Anyone who values unfettered access to online information is apt to be captivated by Killswitch, a gripping and fast-paced documentary.'[236] Kathy Gill of GeekWire asserts that 'Killswitch is much more than a dry recitation of technical history. Director Ali Akbarzadeh, producer Jeff Horn, and writer Chris Dollar created a human-centered story. A large part of that connection comes from Lessig and his relationship with Swartz.'[239]

Other films[edit]

Patriot of the Web, an independentbiographical film about Aaron Swartz, written and directed by Darius Burke, is set to be released in July 2019 on Amazon.[240][241] The film had a limited video on demand release in December 2017 on Reelhouse[242] and in January 2018 on Pivotshare.[243]

Another biographical film about Swartz, Think Aaron, is being developed by HBO Films.[244]

Works[edit]

Specifications[edit]

  • Markdown: Swartz was a major contributor to John Gruber's Markdown,[4][245] a lightweight markup language for generating HTML, and author of its html2text translator. The syntax for Markdown was influenced by Swartz's earlier atx language (2002),[246] which today is primarily remembered for its syntax for specifying headers, known as atx-style headers:[247] Markdown itself remains in widespread use.[citation needed]
  • RDF/XML at W3C: In 2001, Swartz joined the RDFCore working group at the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C),[248] where he authored RFC 3870, Application/RDF+XML Media Type Registration. The document described a new media type, 'RDF/XML', designed to support the Semantic Web.[249]

Software[edit]

  • DeadDrop: In 2011–2012, Swartz, Kevin Poulsen, and James Dolan designed and implemented DeadDrop, a system that allows anonymous informants to send electronic documents without fear of disclosure. In May 2013, the first instance of the software was launched by The New Yorker under the name Strongbox.[250][251][252] The Freedom of the Press Foundation has since taken over development of the software, which has been renamed SecureDrop.[253]
  • Tor2web: In 2008,[254] Swartz worked with Virgil Griffith to design and implement Tor2web, an HTTP proxy for Tor-hidden services. The proxy was designed to provide easy access to Tor from a basic web browser.[255][256]

Publication[edit]

  • Swartz, Aaron; Lucchese, Adriano (November 2014). 'Raw Thought, Raw Nerve: Inside the Mind of Aaron Swartz' (PDF/ePub). New York City: Discovery Publisher.
  • Swartz, Aaron; Hendler, James (October 2001). 'The Semantic Web: A network of content for the digital city'. Proceedings of the Second Annual Digital Cities Workshop. Kyoto, JP: Blogspace.
  • Swartz, Aaron (January – February 2002). 'MusicBrainz: A Semantic Web service'(PDF). IEEE Intelligent Systems. 17 (1): 76–77. CiteSeerX10.1.1.380.9338. doi:10.1109/5254.988466. ISSN1541-1672.
  • Gruber, John; Swartz, Aaron (December 2004). 'Markdown definition'. Daring Fireball. Archived from the original on April 2, 2004.
  • Swartz, Aaron (July 2008). 'Guerilla Open Access Manifesto'.
  • Swartz, Aaron; Hendler, James (2009). Building programmable Web sites. S.F.: Morgan & Claypool. ISBN978-1-59829-920-5.
  • Swartz, Aaron (Interviewee). We can change the world (Video) – via YouTube.
  • Swartz, Aaron (Speaker) (May 21, 2012). Keynote address at Freedom To Connect 2012: How we stopped SOPA (Video). D.C. – via YouTube.
  • Swartz, Aaron (February 2013) [2009]. 'Aaron Swartz's A Programmable Web: An Unfinished Work'. Synthesis Lectures on the Semantic Web: Theory and Technology (PDF). Morgan & Claypool Publishers. 3 (2): 1–64. doi:10.2200/S00481ED1V01Y201302WBE005. Lay summary. To Dan Connolly, who not only created the Web but found time to teach it to me.
  • Swartz, Aaron (January 2016). The Boy Who Could Change the World: The Writings of Aaron Swartz. The New Press.

Notes[edit]

^ Swartz has been identified as a cofounder of Reddit, but the title is a source of controversy. With the merger of Infogami and Reddit, Swartz became a co-owner and director of parent company Not A Bug, Inc., along with Reddit cofounders Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian.[257] Swartz has been referred to as 'cofounder' in the press and by investor Paul Graham (who recommended the merger); Ohanian describes him as 'co-owner'.[31][258]
^ The MIT network administration office told MIT police that 'approximately 70 gigabytes of data had been downloaded, 98% of which was from JSTOR.'[12] The first federal indictment alleged 'approximately 4.8 million articles', '1.7 million' of which 'were made available by independent publishers for purchase through JSTOR's Publisher Sales Service.'[13] The subsequent DOJ press release alleged 'over four million articles'. The superseding indictment removed the estimates and instead characterized the amount as 'a major portion of the total archive in which JSTOR had invested.'[13]

References[edit]

  1. ^ abcYearwood, Pauline (February 22, 2013). 'Brilliant life, tragic death'. Chicago Jewish News. p. 1. Archived from the original on October 17, 2013. Aaron Hillel Swartz was not depressed or suicidal ... a rabbi's wife who has known him since he was a child says.... At age 13 he won the ArsDigita Prize, a competition for young people who create noncommercial websites....
  2. ^ abSkaggs, Paula (January 16, 2013). 'Aaron Swartz Remembered as Internet Activist who Changed the World'. Patch.
  3. ^'RSS creator Aaron Swartz dead at 26'. Harvard Magazine. January 14, 2013. Swartz helped create RSS—a family of Web feed formats used to publish frequently updated works (blog entries, news headlines, ...) in a standardized format—at the age of 14.
  4. ^ ab'Markdown'. Aaron Swartz: The Weblog. March 19, 2004.
  5. ^Lessig, Lawrence (January 12, 2013). 'Remembering Aaron Swartz'. Creative Commons. Aaron was one of the early architects of Creative Commons. As a teenager, he helped design the code layer to our licenses...
  6. ^ abGrehan, Rick (August 10, 2011). 'Pillars of Python: Web.py Web framework'. InfoWorld. Web.py, the brainchild of Aaron Swartz, who developed it while working at Reddit.com, describes itself as a 'minimalist's framework.' ... Test Center Scorecard: Capability 7; Ease of Development 9; Documentation 7; ...; Overall Score 7.6, Good.
  7. ^Swartz, Aaron. 'Sociology or Anthropology'. Raw Thought. Retrieved January 16, 2013.
  8. ^Swartz, Aaron (May 13, 2008). 'Simplistic Sociological Functionalism'. Raw Thought. Retrieved January 16, 2013.
  9. ^ abSeidman, Bianca (July 22, 2011). 'Internet activist charged with hacking into MIT network'. Arlington, Va.: Public Broadcasting Service. [Swartz] was in the middle of a fellowship at Harvard's Edmond J. Safra Center for Ethics, in its Lab on Institutional Corruption
  10. ^ ab'Lab Fellows 2010–2011: Aaron Swartz'. Edmond J. Safra Center for Ethics. Harvard University. 2010. Archived from the original on May 29, 2013. During the fellowship year, he will conduct experimental and ethnographic studies of the political system to prepare a monograph on the mechanisms of political corruption.
  11. ^ abGerstein, Josh (July 22, 2011). 'MIT also pressing charges against hacking suspect'. Politico. [Swartz's] alleged use of MIT facilities and Web connections to access the JSTOR database ... resulted in two state felony charges for breaking into a 'depository' and breaking & entering in the daytime, according to local prosecutors.
  12. ^ abcdeCommonwealth v. Swartz, 11-52CR73 & 11-52CR75, MIT Police Incident Report 11-351 (Mass. Dist. Ct. nolle prosequi December 16, 2011) ('Captain Albert P[...] and Special Agent Pickett were able to apprehend the suspect at 24 Lee Street.... He was arrested for two counts of Breaking and Entering in the daytime with the intent to commit a felony....').
  13. ^ abcdefg'Indictment, USA v. Swartz, 1:11-cr-10260, No. 2 (D.Mass. July 14, 2011)'. MIT. July 14, 2011. Retrieved January 23, 2013. Superseded by 'Superseding Indictment, USA v. Swartz, 1:11-cr-10260, No. 53 (D.Mass. September 12, 2012)'. Docketalarm.com. September 12, 2012. Retrieved January 23, 2013.
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  19. ^ abNelson, Valerie J. (January 12, 2013). 'Aaron Swartz dies at 26; Internet folk hero founded Reddit'. Los Angeles Times.
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  21. ^'Reddit co-creator Aaron Swartz dies from suicide'. Chicago Tribune. January 13, 2013.
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  28. ^ abRyan, Singel (September 13, 2005). 'Stars Rise at Startup Summer Camp'. Wired. Retrieved December 19, 2014.
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  40. ^Murphy, Samantha (July 22, 2011). ''Guerilla activist' releases 18,000 scientific papers'. MIT Technology Review. In a 2008 'Guerilla Open Access Manifesto,' Swartz called for activists to 'fight back' against services that held academic papers hostage behind paywalls.
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  42. ^'FOI Request: Records related to Bradley Manning'. Muckrock. Retrieved January 23, 2013.
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See also[edit]

External links[edit]

  • English Wikipedia userpage (2004–2013)
  • Aaron Swartz on Twitter
  • Remembrances (2013– ), with obituary and official statement from family and partner
  • The Internet's Own Boy: The Story of Aaron Swartz, The Documentary Network, June 29, 2014, a film by Brian Knappenberger – Luminant Media
  • The Aaron Swartz Collection at Internet Archive (2013– ) (podcasts, e-mail correspondence, other materials)
  • The full text of Guerilla Open Access Manifesto at Wikisource
  • Aaron Swartz on IMDb
  • Posting about Swartz as Wikipedia contributor (2013), at The Wikipedian
  • JSTOR Evidence in United States vs. Aaron Swartz – A collection of documents and events from JSTOR's perspective. Hundreds of emails and other documents they provided the government concerning the case.
  • Federal law enforcement documents about Aaron Swartz, released under the Freedom of Information Act

Further reading[edit]

External video
Presentation by Justin Peters on The Idealist, June 11, 2016, C-SPAN
  • Nanos, Janelle (January 2014). 'Losing Aaron'. Boston.
  • Peters, Justin (2016). The Idealist: Aaron Swartz and the Rise of Free Culture on the Internet. Scribner. ISBN978-1476767727. Biography of Swartz.
  • Poulsen, Kevin. 'MIT Moves to Intervene in Release of Aaron Swartz's Secret Service File.' Wired. July 18, 2013.

Documentary[edit]

  • Brian Knappenberger (Producer and Director), The Internet's Own Boy: The Story of Aaron Swartz. Participant Media: 2014. Via The Internet Archive, www.archive.org/ Run time: 105 minutes.
  • Ali Akbarzadeh (Director), Killswitch: The Battle to Control the Internet, Akorn Entertainment: 2014
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aaron_Swartz&oldid=901423351'
Clockwise from upper left: a self-portrait by Vincent van Gogh; a female ancestor figure by a Chokwe artist; detail from The Birth of Venus by Sandro Botticelli; and an Okinawan Shisa lion

Art is a diverse range of human activities in creating visual, auditory or performing artifacts (artworks), expressing the author's imaginative, conceptualideas, or technical skill, intended to be appreciated for their beauty or emotional power.[1][2] In their most general form these activities include the production of works of art, the criticism of art, the study of the history of art, and the aesthetic dissemination of art.

The three classical branches of art are painting, sculpture and architecture.[3]Music, theatre, film, dance, and other performing arts, as well as literature and other media such as interactive media, are included in a broader definition of the arts.[1][4] Until the 17th century, art referred to any skill or mastery and was not differentiated from crafts or sciences. In modern usage after the 17th century, where aesthetic considerations are paramount, the fine arts are separated and distinguished from acquired skills in general, such as the decorative or applied arts.

Though the definition of what constitutes art is disputed[5][6][7] and has changed over time, general descriptions mention an idea of imaginative or technical skill stemming from human agency[8] and creation.[9] The nature of art and related concepts, such as creativity and interpretation, are explored in a branch of philosophy known as aesthetics.[10]

  • 3Forms, genres, media, and styles
  • 4Purpose
  • 7Theory
  • 8Classification disputes

Creative art and fine art

Works of art can tell stories or simply express an aesthetic truth or feeling. Panorama of a section of A Thousand Li of Mountains and Rivers, a 12th-century painting by Song dynasty artist Wang Ximeng.

In the perspective of the history of art,[9] artistic works have existed for almost as long as humankind: from early pre-historic art to contemporary art; however, some theorists feel that the typical concept of 'artistic works' fits less well outside modern Western societies.[11] One early sense of the definition of art is closely related to the older Latin meaning, which roughly translates to 'skill' or 'craft,' as associated with words such as 'artisan.' English words derived from this meaning include artifact, artificial, artifice, medical arts, and military arts. However, there are many other colloquial uses of the word, all with some relation to its etymology.

The Art Of Being Human 10th Edition Pdf Free Download

20th-century Rwandan bottle. Artistic works may serve practical functions, in addition to their decorative value.

Over time, philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, Socrates and Kant, among others, questioned the meaning of art.[12] Several dialogues in Plato tackle questions about art: Socrates says that poetry is inspired by the muses, and is not rational. He speaks approvingly of this, and other forms of divine madness (drunkenness, eroticism, and dreaming) in the Phaedrus(265a–c), and yet in the Republic wants to outlaw Homer's great poetic art, and laughter as well. In Ion, Socrates gives no hint of the disapproval of Homer that he expresses in the Republic. The dialogue Ion suggests that Homer's Iliad functioned in the ancient Greek world as the Bible does today in the modern Christian world: as divinely inspired literary art that can provide moral guidance, if only it can be properly interpreted.[13]

With regards to the literary art and the musical arts, Aristotle considered epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry and music to be mimetic or imitative art, each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner.[14] For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation—through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.[15] Aristotle believed that imitation is natural to mankind and constitutes one of mankind's advantages over animals.[16]

The more recent and specific sense of the word art as an abbreviation for creative art or fine art emerged in the early 17th century.[17] Fine art refers to a skill used to express the artist's creativity, or to engage the audience's aesthetic sensibilities, or to draw the audience towards consideration of more refined or finer work of art.

Within this latter sense, the word art may refer to several things: (i) a study of a creative skill, (ii) a process of using the creative skill, (iii) a product of the creative skill, or (iv) the audience's experience with the creative skill. The creative arts (art as discipline) are a collection of disciplines which produce artworks (art as objects) that are compelled by a personal drive (art as activity) and convey a message, mood, or symbolism for the perceiver to interpret (art as experience). Art is something that stimulates an individual's thoughts, emotions, beliefs, or ideas through the senses. Works of art can be explicitly made for this purpose or interpreted on the basis of images or objects. For some scholars, such as Kant, the sciences and the arts could be distinguished by taking science as representing the domain of knowledge and the arts as representing the domain of the freedom of artistic expression.[18]

Often, if the skill is being used in a common or practical way, people will consider it a craft instead of art. Likewise, if the skill is being used in a commercial or industrial way, it may be considered commercial art instead of fine art. On the other hand, crafts and design are sometimes considered applied art. Some art followers have argued that the difference between fine art and applied art has more to do with value judgments made about the art than any clear definitional difference.[19] However, even fine art often has goals beyond pure creativity and self-expression. The purpose of works of art may be to communicate ideas, such as in politically, spiritually, or philosophically motivated art; to create a sense of beauty (see aesthetics); to explore the nature of perception; for pleasure; or to generate strong emotions. The purpose may also be seemingly nonexistent.

The nature of art has been described by philosopher Richard Wollheim as 'one of the most elusive of the traditional problems of human culture'.[20] Art has been defined as a vehicle for the expression or communication of emotions and ideas, a means for exploring and appreciating formal elements for their own sake, and as mimesis or representation. Art as mimesis has deep roots in the philosophy of Aristotle.[21]Leo Tolstoy identified art as a use of indirect means to communicate from one person to another.[21]Benedetto Croce and R. G. Collingwood advanced the idealist view that art expresses emotions, and that the work of art therefore essentially exists in the mind of the creator.[22][23] The theory of art as form has its roots in the philosophy of Kant, and was developed in the early twentieth century by Roger Fry and Clive Bell. More recently, thinkers influenced by Martin Heidegger have interpreted art as the means by which a community develops for itself a medium for self-expression and interpretation.[24]George Dickie has offered an institutional theory of art that defines a work of art as any artifact upon which a qualified person or persons acting on behalf of the social institution commonly referred to as 'the art world' has conferred 'the status of candidate for appreciation'.[25] Larry Shiner has described fine art as 'not an essence or a fate but something we have made. Art as we have generally understood it is a European invention barely two hundred years old.'[26]

Art may be characterized in terms of mimesis (its representation of reality), narrative (storytelling), expression, communication of emotion, or other qualities. During the Romantic period, art came to be seen as 'a special faculty of the human mind to be classified with religion and science'.[27]

History

Venus of Willendorf, circa 24,000–22,000 BP

The oldest documented forms of art are visual arts,[28] which include creation of images or objects in fields including today painting, sculpture, printmaking, photography, and other visual media. Sculptures, cave paintings, rock paintings and petroglyphs from the Upper Paleolithic dating to roughly 40,000 years ago have been found,[29] but the precise meaning of such art is often disputed because so little is known about the cultures that produced them. The oldest art objects in the world—a series of tiny, drilled snail shells about 75,000 years old—were discovered in a South African cave.[30] Containers that may have been used to hold paints have been found dating as far back as 100,000 years.[31] Etched shells by Homo erectus from 430,000 and 540,000 years ago were discovered in 2014.[32]

Cave painting of a horse from the Lascaux caves, circa 16,000 BP

Many great traditions in art have a foundation in the art of one of the great ancient civilizations: Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, India, China, Ancient Greece, Rome, as well as Inca, Maya, and Olmec. Each of these centers of early civilization developed a unique and characteristic style in its art. Because of the size and duration of these civilizations, more of their art works have survived and more of their influence has been transmitted to other cultures and later times. Some also have provided the first records of how artists worked. For example, this period of Greek art saw a veneration of the human physical form and the development of equivalent skills to show musculature, poise, beauty, and anatomically correct proportions.[33]

In Byzantine and Medieval art of the Western Middle Ages, much art focused on the expression of subjects about Biblical and religious culture, and used styles that showed the higher glory of a heavenly world, such as the use of gold in the background of paintings, or glass in mosaics or windows, which also presented figures in idealized, patterned (flat) forms. Nevertheless, a classical realist tradition persisted in small Byzantine works, and realism steadily grew in the art of Catholic Europe.[34]

Renaissance art had a greatly increased emphasis on the realistic depiction of the material world, and the place of humans in it, reflected in the corporeality of the human body, and development of a systematic method of graphical perspective to depict recession in a three-dimensional picture space.[35]

The stylized signature of SultanMahmud II of the Ottoman Empire was written in Islamic calligraphy. It reads 'Mahmud Khan son of Abdulhamid is forever victorious'.
The Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia, also called the Mosque of Uqba, is one of the finest, most significant and best preserved artistic and architectural examples of early great mosques. Dated in its present state from the 9th century, it is the ancestor and model of all the mosques in the western Islamic lands.[36]

In the east, Islamic art's rejection of iconography led to emphasis on geometric patterns, calligraphy, and architecture.[37] Further east, religion dominated artistic styles and forms too. India and Tibet saw emphasis on painted sculptures and dance, while religious painting borrowed many conventions from sculpture and tended to bright contrasting colors with emphasis on outlines. China saw the flourishing of many art forms: jade carving, bronzework, pottery (including the stunning terracotta army of Emperor Qin[38]), poetry, calligraphy, music, painting, drama, fiction, etc. Chinese styles vary greatly from era to era and each one is traditionally named after the ruling dynasty. So, for example, Tang dynasty paintings are monochromatic and sparse, emphasizing idealized landscapes, but Ming dynasty paintings are busy and colorful, and focus on telling stories via setting and composition.[39] Japan names its styles after imperial dynasties too, and also saw much interplay between the styles of calligraphy and painting. Woodblock printing became important in Japan after the 17th century.[40]

Painting by Song dynasty artist Ma Lin, circa 1250. 24.8 × 25.2 cm

The western Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century saw artistic depictions of physical and rational certainties of the clockwork universe, as well as politically revolutionary visions of a post-monarchist world, such as Blake's portrayal of Newton as a divine geometer,[41] or David's propagandistic paintings. This led to Romantic rejections of this in favor of pictures of the emotional side and individuality of humans, exemplified in the novels of Goethe. The late 19th century then saw a host of artistic movements, such as academic art, Symbolism, impressionism and fauvism among others.[42][43]

The history of twentieth-century art is a narrative of endless possibilities and the search for new standards, each being torn down in succession by the next. Thus the parameters of impressionism, Expressionism, Fauvism, Cubism, Dadaism, Surrealism, etc. cannot be maintained very much beyond the time of their invention. Increasing global interaction during this time saw an equivalent influence of other cultures into Western art. Thus, Japanese woodblock prints (themselves influenced by Western Renaissance draftsmanship) had an immense influence on impressionism and subsequent development. Later, African sculptures were taken up by Picasso and to some extent by Matisse. Similarly, in the 19th and 20th centuries the West has had huge impacts on Eastern art with originally western ideas like Communism and Post-Modernism exerting a powerful influence.[44]

Modernism, the idealistic search for truth, gave way in the latter half of the 20th century to a realization of its unattainability. Theodor W. Adorno said in 1970, 'It is now taken for granted that nothing which concerns art can be taken for granted any more: neither art itself, nor art in relationship to the whole, nor even the right of art to exist.'[45]Relativism was accepted as an unavoidable truth, which led to the period of contemporary art and postmodern criticism, where cultures of the world and of history are seen as changing forms, which can be appreciated and drawn from only with skepticism and irony. Furthermore, the separation of cultures is increasingly blurred and some argue it is now more appropriate to think in terms of a global culture, rather than of regional ones.[46]

In The Origin of the Work of Art, Martin Heidegger, a German philosopher and a seminal thinker, describes the essence of art in terms of the concepts of being and truth. He argues that art is not only a way of expressing the element of truth in a culture, but the means of creating it and providing a springboard from which 'that which is' can be revealed. Works of art are not merely representations of the way things are, but actually produce a community's shared understanding. Each time a new artwork is added to any culture, the meaning of what it is to exist is inherently changed.

Forms, genres, media, and styles

Napoleon I on his Imperial Throne by Ingres (French, 1806), oil on canvas

The creative arts are often divided into more specific categories, typically along perceptually distinguishable categories such as media, genre, styles, and form.[47]Art form refers to the elements of art that are independent of its interpretation or significance. It covers the methods adopted by the artist and the physical composition of the artwork, primarily non-semantic aspects of the work (i.e., figurae),[48] such as color, contour, dimension, medium, melody, space, texture, and value. Form may also include visual design principles, such as arrangement, balance, contrast, emphasis, harmony, proportion, proximity, and rhythm.[49]

In general there are three schools of philosophy regarding art, focusing respectively on form, content, and context.[49] Extreme Formalism is the view that all aesthetic properties of art are formal (that is, part of the art form). Philosophers almost universally reject this view and hold that the properties and aesthetics of art extend beyond materials, techniques, and form.[50] Unfortunately, there is little consensus on terminology for these informal properties. Some authors refer to subject matter and content – i.e., denotations and connotations – while others prefer terms like meaning and significance.[49]

Extreme Intentionalism holds that authorial intent plays a decisive role in the meaning of a work of art, conveying the content or essential main idea, while all other interpretations can be discarded.[51] It defines the subject as the persons or idea represented,[52] and the content as the artist's experience of that subject.[53] For example, the composition of Napoleon I on his Imperial Throne is partly borrowed from the Statue of Zeus at Olympia. As evidenced by the title, the subject is Napoleon, and the content is Ingres's representation of Napoleon as 'Emperor-God beyond time and space'.[49] Similarly to extreme formalism, philosophers typically reject extreme intentionalism, because art may have multiple ambiguous meanings and authorial intent may be unknowable and thus irrelevant. Its restrictive interpretation is 'socially unhealthy, philosophically unreal, and politically unwise'.[49]

Finally, the developing theory of post-structuralism studies art's significance in a cultural context, such as the ideas, emotions, and reactions prompted by a work.[54] The cultural context often reduces to the artist's techniques and intentions, in which case analysis proceeds along lines similar to formalism and intentionalism. However, in other cases historical and material conditions may predominate, such as religious and philosophical convictions, sociopolitical and economic structures, or even climate and geography. Art criticism continues to grow and develop alongside art.[49]

Skill and craft

Adam. Detail from Michelangelo's fresco in the Sistine Chapel (1511)

Art can connote a sense of trained ability or mastery of a medium. Art can also simply refer to the developed and efficient use of a language to convey meaning with immediacy and or depth. Art can be defined as an act of expressing feelings, thoughts, and observations.[55]

There is an understanding that is reached with the material as a result of handling it, which facilitates one's thought processes.A common view is that the epithet 'art', particular in its elevated sense, requires a certain level of creative expertise by the artist, whether this be a demonstration of technical ability, an originality in stylistic approach, or a combination of these two. Traditionally skill of execution was viewed as a quality inseparable from art and thus necessary for its success; for Leonardo da Vinci, art, neither more nor less than his other endeavors, was a manifestation of skill.[56]Rembrandt's work, now praised for its ephemeral virtues, was most admired by his contemporaries for its virtuosity.[57] At the turn of the 20th century, the adroit performances of John Singer Sargent were alternately admired and viewed with skepticism for their manual fluency,[58] yet at nearly the same time the artist who would become the era's most recognized and peripatetic iconoclast, Pablo Picasso, was completing a traditional academic training at which he excelled.[59][60]

Detail of Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa, showing the painting technique of sfumato

A common contemporary criticism of some modern art occurs along the lines of objecting to the apparent lack of skill or ability required in the production of the artistic object. In conceptual art, Marcel Duchamp's 'Fountain' is among the first examples of pieces wherein the artist used found objects ('ready-made') and exercised no traditionally recognised set of skills.[61]Tracey Emin's My Bed, or Damien Hirst's The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living follow this example and also manipulate the mass media. Emin slept (and engaged in other activities) in her bed before placing the result in a gallery as work of art. Hirst came up with the conceptual design for the artwork but has left most of the eventual creation of many works to employed artisans. Hirst's celebrity is founded entirely on his ability to produce shocking concepts.[62] The actual production in many conceptual and contemporary works of art is a matter of assembly of found objects. However, there are many modernist and contemporary artists who continue to excel in the skills of drawing and painting and in creating hands-on works of art.[63]

Purpose

A Navajo rug made circa 1880
Windows
MozarabicBeatusminiature. Spain, late 10th century

Art has had a great number of different functions throughout its history, making its purpose difficult to abstract or quantify to any single concept. This does not imply that the purpose of Art is 'vague', but that it has had many unique, different reasons for being created. Some of these functions of Art are provided in the following outline. The different purposes of art may be grouped according to those that are non-motivated, and those that are motivated (Lévi-Strauss).[64]

Non-motivated functions

The non-motivated purposes of art are those that are integral to being human, transcend the individual, or do not fulfill a specific external purpose. In this sense, Art, as creativity, is something humans must do by their very nature (i.e., no other species creates art), and is therefore beyond utility.[64]

  1. Basic human instinct for harmony, balance, rhythm. Art at this level is not an action or an object, but an internal appreciation of balance and harmony (beauty), and therefore an aspect of being human beyond utility.

    Imitation, then, is one instinct of our nature. Next, there is the instinct for 'harmony' and rhythm, meters being manifestly sections of rhythm. Persons, therefore, starting with this natural gift developed by degrees their special aptitudes, till their rude improvisations gave birth to Poetry. – Aristotle[65]

  2. Experience of the mysterious. Art provides a way to experience one's self in relation to the universe. This experience may often come unmotivated, as one appreciates art, music or poetry.

    The most beautiful thing we can experience is the mysterious. It is the source of all true art and science. – Albert Einstein[66]

  3. Expression of the imagination. Art provides a means to express the imagination in non-grammatic ways that are not tied to the formality of spoken or written language. Unlike words, which come in sequences and each of which have a definite meaning, art provides a range of forms, symbols and ideas with meanings that are malleable.

    Jupiter's eagle [as an example of art] is not, like logical (aesthetic) attributes of an object, the concept of the sublimity and majesty of creation, but rather something else—something that gives the imagination an incentive to spread its flight over a whole host of kindred representations that provoke more thought than admits of expression in a concept determined by words. They furnish an aesthetic idea, which serves the above rational idea as a substitute for logical presentation, but with the proper function, however, of animating the mind by opening out for it a prospect into a field of kindred representations stretching beyond its ken. – Immanuel Kant[67]

  4. Ritualistic and symbolic functions. In many cultures, art is used in rituals, performances and dances as a decoration or symbol. While these often have no specific utilitarian (motivated) purpose, anthropologists know that they often serve a purpose at the level of meaning within a particular culture. This meaning is not furnished by any one individual, but is often the result of many generations of change, and of a cosmological relationship within the culture.

    Most scholars who deal with rock paintings or objects recovered from prehistoric contexts that cannot be explained in utilitarian terms and are thus categorized as decorative, ritual or symbolic, are aware of the trap posed by the term 'art'. – Silva Tomaskova[68]

Motivated functions

Motivated purposes of art refer to intentional, conscious actions on the part of the artists or creator. These may be to bring about political change, to comment on an aspect of society, to convey a specific emotion or mood, to address personal psychology, to illustrate another discipline, to (with commercial arts) sell a product, or simply as a form of communication.[64][69]

  1. Communication. Art, at its simplest, is a form of communication. As most forms of communication have an intent or goal directed toward another individual, this is a motivated purpose. Illustrative arts, such as scientific illustration, are a form of art as communication. Maps are another example. However, the content need not be scientific. Emotions, moods and feelings are also communicated through art.

    [Art is a set of] artefacts or images with symbolic meanings as a means of communication. – Steve Mithen[70]

  2. Art as entertainment. Art may seek to bring about a particular emotion or mood, for the purpose of relaxing or entertaining the viewer. This is often the function of the art industries of Motion Pictures and Video Games.[71]
  3. The Avante-Garde. Art for political change. One of the defining functions of early twentieth-century art has been to use visual images to bring about political change. Art movements that had this goal—Dadaism, Surrealism, Russian constructivism, and Abstract Expressionism, among others—are collectively referred to as the avante-garde arts.

    By contrast, the realistic attitude, inspired by positivism, from Saint Thomas Aquinas to Anatole France, clearly seems to me to be hostile to any intellectual or moral advancement. I loathe it, for it is made up of mediocrity, hate, and dull conceit. It is this attitude which today gives birth to these ridiculous books, these insulting plays. It constantly feeds on and derives strength from the newspapers and stultifies both science and art by assiduously flattering the lowest of tastes; clarity bordering on stupidity, a dog's life. – André Breton (Surrealism)[72]

  4. Art as a 'free zone', removed from the action of the social censure. Unlike the avant-garde movements, which wanted to erase cultural differences in order to produce new universal values, contemporary art has enhanced its tolerance towards cultural differences as well as its critical and liberating functions (social inquiry, activism, subversion, deconstruction ...), becoming a more open place for research and experimentation.[73]
  5. Art for social inquiry, subversion and/or anarchy. While similar to art for political change, subversive or deconstructivist art may seek to question aspects of society without any specific political goal. In this case, the function of art may be simply to criticize some aspect of society.
    Spray-paintgraffiti on a wall in Rome
    Graffiti art and other types of street art are graphics and images that are spray-painted or stencilled on publicly viewable walls, buildings, buses, trains, and bridges, usually without permission. Certain art forms, such as graffiti, may also be illegal when they break laws (in this case vandalism).
  6. Art for social causes. Art can be used to raise awareness for a large variety of causes. A number of art activities were aimed at raising awareness of autism,[74][75][76] cancer,[77][78][79]human trafficking,[80][81] and a variety of other topics, such as ocean conservation,[82] human rights in Darfur,[83] murdered and missing Aboriginal women,[84] elder abuse,[85] and pollution.[86]Trashion, using trash to make fashion, practiced by artists such as Marina DeBris is one example of using art to raise awareness about pollution.
  7. Art for psychological and healing purposes. Art is also used by art therapists, psychotherapists and clinical psychologists as art therapy. The Diagnostic Drawing Series, for example, is used to determine the personality and emotional functioning of a patient. The end product is not the principal goal in this case, but rather a process of healing, through creative acts, is sought. The resultant piece of artwork may also offer insight into the troubles experienced by the subject and may suggest suitable approaches to be used in more conventional forms of psychiatric therapy.[87]
  8. Art for propaganda, or commercialism. Art is often utilized as a form of propaganda, and thus can be used to subtly influence popular conceptions or mood. In a similar way, art that tries to sell a product also influences mood and emotion. In both cases, the purpose of art here is to subtly manipulate the viewer into a particular emotional or psychological response toward a particular idea or object.[88]
  9. Art as a fitness indicator. It has been argued that the ability of the human brain by far exceeds what was needed for survival in the ancestral environment. One evolutionary psychology explanation for this is that the human brain and associated traits (such as artistic ability and creativity) are the human equivalent of the peacock's tail. The purpose of the male peacock's extravagant tail has been argued to be to attract females (see also Fisherian runaway and handicap principle). According to this theory superior execution of art was evolutionarily important because it attracted mates.[89]

The functions of art described above are not mutually exclusive, as many of them may overlap. For example, art for the purpose of entertainment may also seek to sell a product, i.e. the movie or video game.

Public access

Versailles: Louis Le Vau opened up the interior court to create the expansive entrance cour d'honneur, later copied all over Europe.

Since ancient times, much of the finest art has represented a deliberate display of wealth or power, often achieved by using massive scale and expensive materials. Much art has been commissioned by political rulers or religious establishments, with more modest versions only available to the most wealthy in society.[90]

Nevertheless, there have been many periods where art of very high quality was available, in terms of ownership, across large parts of society, above all in cheap media such as pottery, which persists in the ground, and perishable media such as textiles and wood. In many different cultures, the ceramics of indigenous peoples of the Americas are found in such a wide range of graves that they were clearly not restricted to a social elite,[91] though other forms of art may have been. Reproductive methods such as moulds made mass-production easier, and were used to bring high-quality Ancient Roman pottery and Greek Tanagra figurines to a very wide market. Cylinder seals were both artistic and practical, and very widely used by what can be loosely called the middle class in the Ancient Near East.[92] Once coins were widely used, these also became an art form that reached the widest range of society.[93]

Another important innovation came in the 15th century in Europe, when printmaking began with small woodcuts, mostly religious, that were often very small and hand-colored, and affordable even by peasants who glued them to the walls of their homes. Printed books were initially very expensive, but fell steadily in price until by the 19th century even the poorest could afford some with printed illustrations.[94]Popular prints of many different sorts have decorated homes and other places for centuries.[95]

Public buildings and monuments, secular and religious, by their nature normally address the whole of society, and visitors as viewers, and display to the general public has long been an important factor in their design. Egyptian temples are typical in that the most largest and most lavish decoration was placed on the parts that could be seen by the general public, rather than the areas seen only by the priests.[96] Many areas of royal palaces, castles and the houses of the social elite were often generally accessible, and large parts of the art collections of such people could often be seen, either by anybody, or by those able to pay a small price, or those wearing the correct clothes, regardless of who they were, as at the Palace of Versailles, where the appropriate extra accessories (silver shoe buckles and a sword) could be hired from shops outside.[97]

Special arrangements were made to allow the public to see many royal or private collections placed in galleries, as with the Orleans Collection mostly housed in a wing of the Palais Royal in Paris, which could be visited for most of the 18th century.[98] In Italy the art tourism of the Grand Tour became a major industry from the Renaissance onwards, and governments and cities made efforts to make their key works accessible. The British Royal Collection remains distinct, but large donations such as the Old Royal Library were made from it to the British Museum, established in 1753. The Uffizi in Florence opened entirely as a gallery in 1765, though this function had been gradually taking the building over from the original civil servants' offices for a long time before.[99] The building now occupied by the Prado in Madrid was built before the French Revolution for the public display of parts of the royal art collection, and similar royal galleries open to the public existed in Vienna, Munich and other capitals. The opening of the Musée du Louvre during the French Revolution (in 1793) as a public museum for much of the former French royal collection certainly marked an important stage in the development of public access to art, transferring ownership to a republican state, but was a continuation of trends already well established.[100]

Most modern public museums and art education programs for children in schools can be traced back to this impulse to have art available to everyone. Museums in the United States tend to be gifts from the very rich to the masses. (The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, for example, was created by John Taylor Johnston, a railroad executive whose personal art collection seeded the museum.) But despite all this, at least one of the important functions of art in the 21st century remains as a marker of wealth and social status.[101]

Performance by Joseph Beuys, 1978: Everyone an artist – On the way to the libertarian form of the social organism

There have been attempts by artists to create art that can not be bought by the wealthy as a status object. One of the prime original motivators of much of the art of the late 1960s and 1970s was to create art that could not be bought and sold. It is 'necessary to present something more than mere objects'[102] said the major post war German artist Joseph Beuys. This time period saw the rise of such things as performance art, video art, and conceptual art. The idea was that if the artwork was a performance that would leave nothing behind, or was simply an idea, it could not be bought and sold. 'Democratic precepts revolving around the idea that a work of art is a commodity impelled the aesthetic innovation which germinated in the mid-1960s and was reaped throughout the 1970s. Artists broadly identified under the heading of Conceptual art ... substituting performance and publishing activities for engagement with both the material and materialistic concerns of painted or sculptural form ... [have] endeavored to undermine the art object qua object.'[103]

In the decades since, these ideas have been somewhat lost as the art market has learned to sell limited edition DVDs of video works,[104] invitations to exclusive performance art pieces, and the objects left over from conceptual pieces. Many of these performances create works that are only understood by the elite who have been educated as to why an idea or video or piece of apparent garbage may be considered art. The marker of status becomes understanding the work instead of necessarily owning it, and the artwork remains an upper-class activity. 'With the widespread use of DVD recording technology in the early 2000s, artists, and the gallery system that derives its profits from the sale of artworks, gained an important means of controlling the sale of video and computer artworks in limited editions to collectors.'[105]

Controversies

The Art Of Being Human 10th Edition Pdf Download Windows 7

Théodore Géricault's Raft of the Medusa, circa 1820

Art has long been controversial, that is to say disliked by some viewers, for a wide variety of reasons, though most pre-modern controversies are dimly recorded, or completely lost to a modern view. Iconoclasm is the destruction of art that is disliked for a variety of reasons, including religious ones. Aniconism is a general dislike of either all figurative images, or often just religious ones, and has been a thread in many major religions. It has been a crucial factor in the history of Islamic art, where depictions of Muhammad remain especially controversial. Much art has been disliked purely because it depicted or otherwise stood for unpopular rulers, parties or other groups. Artistic conventions have often been conservative and taken very seriously by art critics, though often much less so by a wider public. The iconographic content of art could cause controversy, as with late medieval depictions of the new motif of the Swoon of the Virgin in scenes of the Crucifixion of Jesus. The Last Judgment by Michelangelo was controversial for various reasons, including breaches of decorum through nudity and the Apollo-like pose of Christ.[106][107]

The content of much formal art through history was dictated by the patron or commissioner rather than just the artist, but with the advent of Romanticism, and economic changes in the production of art, the artists' vision became the usual determinant of the content of his art, increasing the incidence of controversies, though often reducing their significance. Strong incentives for perceived originality and publicity also encouraged artists to court controversy. Théodore Géricault's Raft of the Medusa (c. 1820), was in part a political commentary on a recent event. Édouard Manet's Le Déjeuner sur l'Herbe (1863), was considered scandalous not because of the nude woman, but because she is seated next to men fully dressed in the clothing of the time, rather than in robes of the antique world.[108][109]John Singer Sargent's Madame Pierre Gautreau (Madam X) (1884), caused a controversy over the reddish pink used to color the woman's ear lobe, considered far too suggestive and supposedly ruining the high-society model's reputation.[110][111]The gradual abandonment of naturalism and the depiction of realistic representations of the visual appearance of subjects in the 19th and 20th centuries led to a rolling controversy lasting for over a century. In the twentieth century, Pablo Picasso's Guernica (1937) used arresting cubist techniques and stark monochromatic oils, to depict the harrowing consequences of a contemporary bombing of a small, ancient Basque town. Leon Golub's Interrogation III (1981), depicts a female nude, hooded detainee strapped to a chair, her legs open to reveal her sexual organs, surrounded by two tormentors dressed in everyday clothing. Andres Serrano's Piss Christ (1989) is a photograph of a crucifix, sacred to the Christian religion and representing Christ's sacrifice and final suffering, submerged in a glass of the artist's own urine. The resulting uproar led to comments in the United States Senate about public funding of the arts.[112][113]

Theory

Before Modernism, aesthetics in Western art was greatly concerned with achieving the appropriate balance between different aspects of realism or truth to nature and the ideal; ideas as to what the appropriate balance is have shifted to and fro over the centuries. This concern is largely absent in other traditions of art. The aesthetic theorist John Ruskin, who championed what he saw as the naturalism of J. M. W. Turner, saw art's role as the communication by artifice of an essential truth that could only be found in nature.[114]

The definition and evaluation of art has become especially problematic since the 20th century. Richard Wollheim distinguishes three approaches to assessing the aesthetic value of art: the Realist, whereby aesthetic quality is an absolute value independent of any human view; the Objectivist, whereby it is also an absolute value, but is dependent on general human experience; and the Relativistposition, whereby it is not an absolute value, but depends on, and varies with, the human experience of different humans.[115]

Arrival of Modernism

Composition II in Red, Blue, and Yellow (1930) by Piet Mondrian (Dutch, 1872–1944)

The arrival of Modernism in the late nineteenth century lead to a radical break in the conception of the function of art,[116] and then again in the late twentieth century with the advent of postmodernism. Clement Greenberg's 1960 article 'Modernist Painting' defines modern art as 'the use of characteristic methods of a discipline to criticize the discipline itself'.[117] Greenberg originally applied this idea to the Abstract Expressionist movement and used it as a way to understand and justify flat (non-illusionistic) abstract painting:

Realistic, naturalistic art had dissembled the medium, using art to conceal art; modernism used art to call attention to art. The limitations that constitute the medium of painting—the flat surface, the shape of the support, the properties of the pigment—were treated by the Old Masters as negative factors that could be acknowledged only implicitly or indirectly. Under Modernism these same limitations came to be regarded as positive factors, and were acknowledged openly.[117]

After Greenberg, several important art theorists emerged, such as Michael Fried, T. J. Clark, Rosalind Krauss, Linda Nochlin and Griselda Pollock among others. Though only originally intended as a way of understanding a specific set of artists, Greenberg's definition of modern art is important to many of the ideas of art within the various art movements of the 20th century and early 21st century.[118][119]

Pop artists like Andy Warhol became both noteworthy and influential through work including and possibly critiquing popular culture, as well as the art world. Artists of the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s expanded this technique of self-criticism beyond high art to all cultural image-making, including fashion images, comics, billboards and pornography.[120][121]

Duchamp once proposed that art is any activity of any kind- everything. However, the way that only certain activities are classified today as art is a social construction.[122] There is evidence that there may be an element of truth to this. The Invention of Art: A Cultural History is an art history book which examines the construction of the modern system of the arts i.e. Fine Art. Shiner finds evidence that the older system of the arts before our modern system (fine art) held art to be any skilled human activity i.e. Ancient Greek society did not possess the term art but techne. Techne can be understood neither as art or craft, the reason being that the distinctions of art and craft are historical products that came later on in human history. Techne included painting, sculpting and music but also; cooking, medicine, horsemanship, geometry, carpentry, prophecy, and farming etc.[123]

New Criticism and the 'intentional fallacy'

Following Duchamp during the first half of the twentieth century, a significant shift to general aesthetic theory took place which attempted to apply aesthetic theory between various forms of art, including the literary arts and the visual arts, to each other. This resulted in the rise of the New Criticism school and debate concerning the intentional fallacy. At issue was the question of whether the aesthetic intentions of the artist in creating the work of art, whatever its specific form, should be associated with the criticism and evaluation of the final product of the work of art, or, if the work of art should be evaluated on its own merits independent of the intentions of the artist.[124][125]

In 1946, William K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley published a classic and controversial New Critical essay entitled 'The Intentional Fallacy', in which they argued strongly against the relevance of an author's intention, or 'intended meaning' in the analysis of a literary work. For Wimsatt and Beardsley, the words on the page were all that mattered; importation of meanings from outside the text was considered irrelevant, and potentially distracting.[126][127]

In another essay, 'The Affective Fallacy,' which served as a kind of sister essay to 'The Intentional Fallacy' Wimsatt and Beardsley also discounted the reader's personal/emotional reaction to a literary work as a valid means of analyzing a text. This fallacy would later be repudiated by theorists from the reader-response school of literary theory. Ironically, one of the leading theorists from this school, Stanley Fish, was himself trained by New Critics. Fish criticizes Wimsatt and Beardsley in his essay 'Literature in the Reader' (1970).[128]

As summarized by Gaut and Livingston in their essay 'The Creation of Art': 'Structuralist and post-structuralists theorists and critics were sharply critical of many aspects of New Criticism, beginning with the emphasis on aesthetic appreciation and the so-called autonomy of art, but they reiterated the attack on biographical criticisms's assumption that the artist's activities and experience were a privileged critical topic.'[129] These authors contend that: 'Anti-intentionalists, such as formalists, hold that the intentions involved in the making of art are irrelevant or peripheral to correctly interpreting art. So details of the act of creating a work, though possibly of interest in themselves, have no bearing on the correct interpretation of the work.'[130]

Gaut and Livingston define the intentionalists as distinct from formalists stating that: 'Intentionalists, unlike formalists, hold that reference to intentions is essential in fixing the correct interpretation of works.' They quote Richard Wollheim as stating that, 'The task of criticism is the reconstruction of the creative process, where the creative process must in turn be thought of as something not stopping short of, but terminating on, the work of art itself.'[130]

'Linguistic turn' and its debate

The end of the 20th century fostered an extensive debate known as the linguistic turn controversy, or the 'innocent eye debate', and generally referred to as the structuralism-poststructuralism debate in the philosophy of art. This debate discussed the encounter of the work of art as being determined by the relative extent to which the conceptual encounter with the work of art dominates over the perceptual encounter with the work of art.[131]

Decisive for the linguistic turn debate in art history and the humanities were the works of yet another tradition, namely the structuralism of Ferdinand de Saussure and the ensuing movement of poststructuralism. In 1981, the artist Mark Tansey created a work of art titled 'The Innocent Eye' as a criticism of the prevailing climate of disagreement in the philosophy of art during the closing decades of the 20th century. Influential theorists include Judith Butler, Luce Irigaray, Julia Kristeva, Michel Foucault and Jacques Derrida. The power of language, more specifically of certain rhetorical tropes, in art history and historical discourse was explored by Hayden White. The fact that language is not a transparent medium of thought had been stressed by a very different form of philosophy of language which originated in the works of Johann Georg Hamann and Wilhelm von Humboldt.[132]Ernst Gombrich and Nelson Goodman in his book Languages of Art: An Approach to a Theory of Symbols came to hold that the conceptual encounter with the work of art predominated exclusively over the perceptual and visual encounter with the work of art during the 1960s and 1970s.[133] He was challenged on the basis of research done by the Nobel prize winning psychologist Roger Sperry who maintained that the human visual encounter was not limited to concepts represented in language alone (the linguistic turn) and that other forms of psychological representations of the work of art were equally defensible and demonstrable. Sperry's view eventually prevailed by the end of the 20th century with aesthetic philosophers such as Nick Zangwill strongly defending a return to moderate aesthetic formalism among other alternatives.[134]

Classification disputes

The original Fountain by Marcel Duchamp, 1917, photographed by Alfred Stieglitz at the 291 after the 1917 Society of Independent Artists exhibit. Stieglitz used a backdrop of The Warriors by Marsden Hartley to photograph the urinal. The exhibition entry tag can be clearly seen.[135]

Disputes as to whether or not to classify something as a work of art are referred to as classificatory disputes about art. Classificatory disputes in the 20th century have included cubist and impressionist paintings, Duchamp's Fountain, the movies, superlative imitations of banknotes, conceptual art, and video games.[136] Philosopher David Novitz has argued that disagreement about the definition of art are rarely the heart of the problem. Rather, 'the passionate concerns and interests that humans vest in their social life' are 'so much a part of all classificatory disputes about art' (Novitz, 1996). According to Novitz, classificatory disputes are more often disputes about societal values and where society is trying to go than they are about theory proper. For example, when the Daily Mail criticized Hirst's and Emin's work by arguing 'For 1,000 years art has been one of our great civilising forces. Today, pickled sheep and soiled beds threaten to make barbarians of us all' they are not advancing a definition or theory about art, but questioning the value of Hirst's and Emin's work.[137] In 1998, Arthur Danto, suggested a thought experiment showing that 'the status of an artifact as work of art results from the ideas a culture applies to it, rather than its inherent physical or perceptible qualities. Cultural interpretation (an art theory of some kind) is therefore constitutive of an object's arthood.'[138][139]

Anti-art is a label for art that intentionally challenges the established parameters and values of art;[140] it is term associated with Dadaism and attributed to Marcel Duchamp just before World War I,[140] when he was making art from found objects.[140] One of these, Fountain (1917), an ordinary urinal, has achieved considerable prominence and influence on art.[140] Anti-art is a feature of work by Situationist International,[141] the lo-fi Mail art movement, and the Young British Artists,[140] though it is a form still rejected by the Stuckists,[140] who describe themselves as anti-anti-art.[142][143]

Architecture is often included as one of the visual arts; however, like the decorative arts, or advertising, it involves the creation of objects where the practical considerations of use are essential in a way that they usually are not in a painting, for example.[144]

Value judgment

Aboriginal hollow log tombs. National Gallery, Canberra, Australia

Somewhat in relation to the above, the word art is also used to apply judgments of value, as in such expressions as 'that meal was a work of art' (the cook is an artist),[145] or 'the art of deception', (the highly attained level of skill of the deceiver is praised). It is this use of the word as a measure of high quality and high value that gives the term its flavor of subjectivity. Making judgments of value requires a basis for criticism. At the simplest level, a way to determine whether the impact of the object on the senses meets the criteria to be considered art is whether it is perceived to be attractive or repulsive. Though perception is always colored by experience, and is necessarily subjective, it is commonly understood that what is not somehow aesthetically satisfying cannot be art. However, 'good' art is not always or even regularly aesthetically appealing to a majority of viewers. In other words, an artist's prime motivation need not be the pursuit of the aesthetic. Also, art often depicts terrible images made for social, moral, or thought-provoking reasons. For example, Francisco Goya's painting depicting the Spanish shootings of 3rd of May 1808 is a graphic depiction of a firing squad executing several pleading civilians. Yet at the same time, the horrific imagery demonstrates Goya's keen artistic ability in composition and execution and produces fitting social and political outrage. Thus, the debate continues as to what mode of aesthetic satisfaction, if any, is required to define 'art'.[146][147]

The assumption of new values or the rebellion against accepted notions of what is aesthetically superior need not occur concurrently with a complete abandonment of the pursuit of what is aesthetically appealing. Indeed, the reverse is often true, that the revision of what is popularly conceived of as being aesthetically appealing allows for a re-invigoration of aesthetic sensibility, and a new appreciation for the standards of art itself. Countless schools have proposed their own ways to define quality, yet they all seem to agree in at least one point: once their aesthetic choices are accepted, the value of the work of art is determined by its capacity to transcend the limits of its chosen medium to strike some universal chord by the rarity of the skill of the artist or in its accurate reflection in what is termed the zeitgeist. Art is often intended to appeal to and connect with human emotion. It can arouse aesthetic or moral feelings, and can be understood as a way of communicating these feelings. Artists express something so that their audience is aroused to some extent, but they do not have to do so consciously. Art may be considered an exploration of the human condition; that is, what it is to be human.[148]

See also

  • Street art (or 'independent public art')
  • Outline of the visual arts, a guide to the subject of art presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics.

Notes

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  5. ^Stephen Davies (1991). Definitions of Art. Cornell University Press. ISBN978-0-8014-9794-0.
  6. ^Robert Stecker (1997). Artworks: Definition, Meaning, Value. Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN978-0-271-01596-5.
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  8. ^Dr. Robert J. Belton. 'What Is Art?'. Archived from the original on 27 April 2012.
  9. ^ ab'art'. Encyclopædia Britannica.
  10. ^Kennick, William ed,[clarification needed] and W. E. Kennick, Art and philosophy: readings in aesthetics New York: St. Martin's Press, 1979, pp. xi–xiii. ISBN0-312-05391-6.
  11. ^Elkins, James 'Art History and Images That Are Not Art', The Art Bulletin, Vol. 47, No. 4 (December 1995), with previous bibliography. 'Non-Western images are not well described in terms of art, and neither are medieval paintings that were made in the absence of humanist ideas of artistic value'. 553
  12. ^Gilbert, Kuhn pp. 73-96
  13. ^Gilbert, Kuhn pp. 40–72
  14. ^Aristotle, Poetics I 1447a
  15. ^Aristotle, Poetics III
  16. ^Aristotle, Poetics IV
  17. ^The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press, Oxford 1993, p. 120
  18. ^Gilbert, Kuhn pp. 287–326
  19. ^David Novitz, The Boundaries of Art, 1992
  20. ^Richard Wollheim, Art and its objects, p. 1, 2nd ed., 1980, Cambridge University Press, ISBN0-521-29706-0
  21. ^ abJerrold Levinson, The Oxford Handbook of Aesthetics, Oxford University Press, 2003, p. 5. ISBN0-19-927945-4
  22. ^Jerrold Levinson, The Oxford Handbook of Aesthetics, Oxford University Press, 2003, p. 16. ISBN0-19-927945-4
  23. ^R.G. Collingwood's view, expressed in The Principles of Art, is considered in Wollheim, op. cit. 1980 pp. 36–43
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  107. ^Angela K. Nickerson (July 2010). A Journey Into Michelangelo's Rome. ReadHowYouWant.com. p. 182. ISBN978-1-4587-8547-3. Retrieved 28 May 2018.
  108. ^Alvina Ruprecht; Cecilia Taiana (15 November 1995). Reordering of Culture: Latin America, the Caribbean and Canada in the Hood. McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP. p. 256. ISBN978-0-88629-269-0. Retrieved 28 May 2018.
  109. ^John C. Stout (11 May 2018). Objects Observed: The Poetry of Things in Twentieth-Century France and America. University of Toronto Press. p. 50. ISBN978-1-4875-0157-0. Retrieved 28 May 2018.
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  111. ^Narim Bender (21 July 2014). John Sargent: 121 Drawings. Osmora Incorporated. ISBN978-2-7659-0006-1. Retrieved 28 May 2018.
  112. ^Roger Chapman; James Ciment (17 March 2015). Culture Wars: An Encyclopedia of Issues, Viewpoints and Voices. Routledge. p. 594. ISBN978-1-317-47351-0. Retrieved 28 May 2018.
  113. ^Brian Arthur Brown (15 October 2008). Noah's Other Son: Bridging the Gap Between the Bible and the Qur'an. A&C Black. p. 210. ISBN978-0-8264-2996-4. Retrieved 28 May 2018.
  114. ^'go to nature in all singleness of heart, rejecting nothing and selecting nothing, and scorning nothing, believing all things are right and good, and rejoicing always in the truth'. Ruskin, John. Modern Painters, Volume I, 1843. London: Smith, Elder and Co.
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Bibliography

  • Oscar Wilde, Intentions, 1891
  • Stephen Davies, Definitions of Art, 1991
  • Nina Felshin, ed. But is it Art?, 1995
  • Catherine de Zegher (ed.). Inside the Visible. MIT Press, 1996
  • Evelyn Hatcher, ed. Art as Culture: An Introduction to the Anthropology of Art, 1999
  • Noel Carroll, Theories of Art Today, 2000
  • John Whitehead. Grasping for the Wind, 2001
  • Michael Ann Holly and Keith Moxey (eds.) Art History Aesthetics Visual Studies. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002. ISBN0300097891
  • Shiner, Larry. The Invention of Art: A Cultural History. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003. ISBN978-0-226-75342-3
  • Arthur Danto, The Abuse of Beauty: Aesthetics and the Concept of Art. 2003
  • Dana Arnold and Margaret Iverson, eds. Art and Thought. London: Blackwell, 2003. ISBN0631227156
  • Jean Robertson and Craig McDaniel, Themes of Contemporary Art, Visual Art after 1980, 2005

Further reading

  • Antony Briant and Griselda Pollock, eds. Digital and Other Virtualities: Renegotiating the image. London and NY: I.B.Tauris, 2010. ISBN978-1441676313
  • Augros, Robert M., Stanciu, George N. The New Story of Science: mind and the universe, Lake Bluff, Ill.: Regnery Gateway, 1984. ISBN0-89526-833-7 (this book has significant material on art and science)
  • Benedetto Croce. Aesthetic as Science of Expression and General Linguistic, 2002
  • Botar, Oliver A.I. Technical Detours: The Early Moholy-Nagy Reconsidered. Art Gallery of The Graduate Center, The City University of New York and The Salgo Trust for Education, 2006. ISBN978-1599713571
  • Burguete, Maria, and Lam, Lui, eds. (2011). Arts: A Science Matter. World Scientific: Singapore. ISBN978-981-4324-93-9
  • Carol Armstrong and Catherine de Zegher, eds. Women Artists at the Millennium. Massachusetts: October Books/The MIT Press, 2006. ISBN026201226X
  • Carl Jung, Man and His Symbols. London: Pan Books, 1978. ISBN0330253212
  • E.H. Gombrich, The Story of Art. London: Phaidon Press, 1995. ISBN978-0714832470
  • Florian Dombois, Ute Meta Bauer, Claudia Mareis and Michael Schwab, eds. Intellectual Birdhouse. Artistic Practice as Research. London: Koening Books, 2012. ISBN978-3863351182
  • Katharine Everett Gilbert and Helmut Kuhn, A History of Esthetics. Edition 2, revised. Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1953.
  • Kristine Stiles and Peter Selz, eds. Theories and Documents of Contemporary Art. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986
  • Kleiner, Gardner, Mamiya and Tansey. Art Through the Ages, Twelfth Edition (2 volumes) Wadsworth, 2004. ISBN0-534-64095-8 (vol 1) and ISBN0-534-64091-5 (vol 2)
  • Richard Wollheim, Art and its Objects: An introduction to aesthetics. New York: Harper & Row, 1968. OCLC1077405
  • Will Gompertz. What Are You Looking At?: 150 Years of Modern Art in the Blink of an Eye. New York: Viking, 2012. ISBN978-0670920495
  • Władysław Tatarkiewicz, A History of Six Ideas: an Essay in Aesthetics, translated from the Polish by Christopher Kasparek, The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1980

External links

Library resources about
Art
  • Art and Artist Files in the Smithsonian Libraries Collection (2005) Smithsonian Digital Libraries
  • Visual Arts Data Service (VADS) – online collections from UK museums, galleries, universities
  • Adajian, Thomas. 'The Definition of Art'. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
  • Art at Curlie
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